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The shift toward political and religious freedom in turn, helped spawn the Reformation movement, which caused a divide within the powerful Catholic Church, leading many Europeans to turn to then . 270286, Atkinson Fitzgerald "Printing, Reformation and Information Control". The Commonwealth was unique in Europe in the 16th century for its widespread tolerance confirmed by the Warsaw Confederation. King Sigismund of Poland and Martin Luther: The Reformation before Confessionalization. The Habsburgs, who ruled Spain, Austria, the Crown of Bohemia, Hungary, Slovene Lands, the Spanish Netherlands and much of Germany and Italy, were staunch defenders of the Catholic Church. The Puritans objected to ornaments and ritual in the churches as idolatrous (vestments, surplices, organs, genuflection), calling the vestments "popish pomp and rags" (see Vestments controversy). The Lutheran Reformation was started by Martin Luther in 1517 when he wrote and published his Ninety-Five Theses. The apostolic succession was retained in Sweden during the Reformation. [14], The leaders of the Roman Catholic Church condemned him at the Council of Constance (14141417) and he was burnt at the stake, despite a promise of safe-conduct. As it was led by a Bohemian noble majority, and recognised, for some time, by the Basel Compacts, the Hussite Reformation was Europe's first "Magisterial Reformation" because the ruling magistrates supported it, unlike the "Radical Reformation", which the state did not support. The Reformation was thus a media revolution. Write the letter of the choice that gives the sentence a meaning that is closest to the original sentence. ", Walsham, Alexandra. The Counter-Reformation involved the creation of new practices and policies in the Catholic Church as it was a religious movement that was politically motivated. This document outlined Luther's grievances with the Catholic Church, including their sale of indulgences, their corruption, and their lack of scriptural authority. An important component of the Catholic Reformation in Poland was education. The citizens of Geneva became Protestant in the course of declaring independence from the town's lords, the local bishop and the Catholic Dukes of Savoy. An agreement reached by the Council of Trent was that. [90], Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, who issued a protest (or dissent) against the edict of the Diet of Speyer (1529), were the first individuals to be called Protestants. Despite concerted efforts, the nobility rejected efforts to revise or rescind the Confederation of Warsaw, and protected this agreement. In particular, the Thirty Years' War (16181648) devastated much of Germany, killing between 25% and 40% of its entire population. Upon Lucaris's death in 1638, the conservative factions within the Eastern Orthodox Church held two synods: the Synod of Constantinople (1638) and Synod of Iai (1642) criticising the reforms and, in the 1672 convocation led by Dositheos, they officially condemned the Calvinistic doctrines. The split between Christians in western Europe led to wars as countries struggled with new religious alliances. However, a number of factors complicated the adoption of the religious innovations in Ireland; the majority of the population there adhered to the Catholic Church. Leaders within the Roman Catholic Church responded with the Counter-Reformation, initiated by the Confutatio Augustana in 1530, the Council of Trent in 1545, the formation of the Jesuits in 1540, the Defensio Tridentin fidei in 1578, and also a series of wars and expulsions of Protestants that continued until the 19th century. [53] Frederick's son, Christian, was openly Lutheran, which prevented his election to the throne upon his father's death. [citation needed]. Despite these wars against Protestant, Orthodox, and Muslim neighbours, the Confederation of Warsaw held with one notable exception. Protestant literature was produced at greater levels in cities where media markets were more competitive, making these cities more likely to adopt Protestantism. Calvinism became the most numerous Protestant group because Calvin's teachings on the role of the state within religion appealed to the nobility (known as szlachta), mainly in Lesser Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Deluge, a 20-year period of almost continual warfare, marked the turning point in attitudes. At one point in history[when? This established the preconditions for a series of destructive and intermittent conflicts, known as the Wars of Religion. Which led to the creation of the Church of England? Their refusal to endorse completely all of the ritual directions and formulas of the Book of Common Prayer, and the imposition of its liturgical order by legal force and inspection, sharpened Puritanism into a definite opposition movement. The movement is also labeled the Catholic Reformation and the Catholic renaissance, since elements of Catholic reform and revival predated . [63] Any suspected person who could not clear himself was to be banished from the colony; a second offence carried a death penalty. [a] Due to the reform efforts of Hus and other Bohemian reformers, Utraquist Hussitism was acknowledged by the Council of Basel and was officially tolerated in the Crown of Bohemia, although other movements were still subject to persecution, including the Lollards in England and the Waldensians in France and Italian regions. [38], The following supply-side factors have been identified as causes of the Reformation:[39], The following demand-side factors have been identified as causes of the Reformation:[39], A 2020 study linked the spread of Protestantism to personal ties to Luther (e.g. The later Puritan movement, often referred to as dissenters and nonconformists, eventually led to the formation of various Reformed denominations. This was a debate over the Christian religion. For example, author Hans Hillerbrand estimated a total Protestant population of 833,457,000 in 2004. From a Catholic perspective, the Second Vatican Council called for an end to the Counter-Reformation. Although the two movements agreed on many issues of theology, as the recently introduced printing press spread ideas rapidly from place to place, some unresolved differences kept them separate. As a result, some of them lived as crypto-Protestants, also called Nicodemites, contrary to the urging of John Calvin, who wanted them to live their faith openly. The counter-reformation can be additionally seen as a political movement because of the loss in revenue in the Baltic provinces. [30], The Protestant Reformation was a triumph of literacy and the new printing press. [citation needed]. Teter, Magda. [59] Between 1535 and 1540, under Thomas Cromwell, the policy known as the Dissolution of the Monasteries was put into effect. Spanish Protestants who were able to flee the country were to be found in at least a dozen cities in Europe, such as Geneva, where some of them embraced Calvinist teachings. It covered the following five areas: Doctrine (ideology) Ecclesiastical or Structural Reconfiguration. Such strong measures only fanned the flames of protest, however. They clarified and defended Catholic teachings. Although the Reformation is usually considered to have started with the publication of the Ninety-five Theses by Martin Luther in 1517, he was not excommunicated by Pope Leo X until January 1521. Improved training and education for some Roman Catholic priests. Higher public spending on schooling and better educational performance of military conscripts. However, in the city of Dublin the Reformation took hold under the auspices of George Browne, Archbishop of Dublin. It could be considered to end with the enactment of the confessions of faith. The Counter-Reformation was a period of spiritual, moral, and intellectual revival in the Catholic Church in the 16th and 17th centuries, usually dated from 1545 (the opening of the Council of Trent) to 1648 (the end of the Thirty Years' War). However, the Lutheran Church traditionally sees itself as the "main trunk of the historical Christian Tree" founded by Christ and the Apostles, holding that during the Reformation, the Church of Rome fell away. The 17th century saw a complex struggle between Presbyterianism (particularly the Covenanters) and Episcopalianism. He dramatised Luther's views on the relationship between the Old and New Testaments, while remaining mindful of Luther's careful distinctions about proper and improper uses of visual imagery. In Sweden, the Reformation was spearheaded by Gustav Vasa, elected king in 1523, with major contributions by Olaus Petri, a Swedish clergyman. Ottoman incursions decreased conflicts between Protestants and Catholics, helping the Reformation take root. Central Europe was the site of much of the Thirty Years' War and there were continued expulsions of Protestants in Central Europe up to the 19th century. It began during the period of the council of Trent and ended with European wars of Religion. One famous incident illustrating this was when radical Zwinglians fried and ate sausages during Lent in Zurich city square by way of protest against the Church teaching of good works. The Counter-Reformation was a movement within the Roman Catholic Church which began in the 1500s. Greater political autonomy increased the likelihood that Protestantism would be adopted. Sacramental theology was simplified and attempts at imposing Aristotelian epistemology were resisted. [3] The spread of Gutenberg's printing press provided the means for the rapid dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular. Following World War II, the removal of ethnic Germans to either East Germany or Siberia reduced Protestantism in the Warsaw Pact countries, although some remain today. After the establishment of the Geneva academy in 1559, Geneva became the unofficial capital of the Protestant movement, providing refuge for Protestant exiles from all over Europe and educating them as Calvinist missionaries. They fled first to Holland, and then later to America to establish the English colony of Massachusetts in New England, which later became one of the original United States. It is also considered to be one of the events that signified the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the early modern period in Europe.[2]. A significant Protestant minority remained, most of it adhering to the Calvinist faith. German princes and the Holy Roman Emperor. [18] Pope Alexander VI (14921503) was one of the most controversial of the Renaissance popes. People who did not conform to the will of the Habsburgs and the leaders of the Catholic Church were forcibly sent there. It expressed an alternate vision of Christian practice, and led to the creation and rise of Protestantism, with all its individual branches. Where Protestant reformers enjoyed princely patronage, they were much more likely to succeed. As the number of Protestants in France increased, the number of heretics in prisons awaiting trial also grew. The Peace of Augsburg ended the conflict between. It was more of a movement among the German people between 1517 and 1525, and then also a political one beginning in 1525. [citation needed], The absence of Protestants, however, does not necessarily imply a failure of the Reformation. In Electoral Saxony the Evangelical-Lutheran Church of Saxony was organised and served as an example for other states, although Luther was not dogmatic on questions of polity. Radio Advertisement Imagine that Mr. Noakes has discovered the sunshine over the Hatching's home. Some followers of Zwingli believed that the Reformation was too conservative and moved independently toward more radical positions, some of which survive among modern day Anabaptists. Motivating factors in their decision to adopt aspects of the Reformation included the historical rivalry and mistrust between the Greek Orthodox and the Roman Catholic Churches along with their concerns of Jesuit priests entering Greek lands in their attempts to propagate the teachings of the Counter-Reformation to the Greek populace. In 1525 the last Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights secularised the territory, became Lutheran, and established Lutheranism as the state church. The English Parliament confirmed the King's supremacy over the Church in the Kingdom of England. Some[who?] Numerous colleges and universities were set up throughout the country: the Jesuits and Piarists were important in this regard but there were contributions of other religious orders such as the Dominicans. "Toleration, Pluralism, and Coexistence: The Ambivalent Legacies of the Reformation. He subsequently sponsored Maximos of Gallipoli's translation of the New Testament into the Modern Greek language and it was published in Geneva in 1638. ", This page was last edited on 4 March 2023, at 07:49. [BPSC, 2007] Ans: The Reformation could be described as a religious movement that was directed against the Church of Rome. While much of his career was spent furthering the cause of church reform, he became fascinated with the subject of religious art in particular. This agreement granted religious toleration to all nobles: peasants living on nobile estates did not receive the same protections. The study and practice of music was encouraged in Protestant-majority countries. The first state to formally adopt a Protestant confession was the Duchy of Prussia (1525). Four religions were declared to be "accepted" (recepta) religions (the fourth being Unitarianism, which became official in 1583 as the faith of the only Unitarian king, John II Sigismund Zpolya, r. 15401571), while Eastern Orthodox Christianity was "tolerated" (though the building of stone Orthodox churches was forbidden). This conflict is called the Protestant Reformation, and the Catholic response to it is called the Counter-Reformation. After this first stage of the Reformation, following the excommunication of Luther in Decet Romanum Pontificem and the condemnation of his followers by the edicts of the 1521 Diet of Worms, the work and writings of John Calvin were influential in establishing a loose consensus among various churches in Switzerland, Scotland, Hungary, Germany and elsewhere. These courts came to known as "La Chambre Ardente" ("the fiery chamber") because of their reputation of meting out death penalties on burning gallows.[73]. The Counter Reformation saw the Church use art, architecture, music and exploration to ensure that Christians understood that only St. Peter and the Church have the key: Rubens. [22][23] Magdalena Heymair printed pedagogical writings for teaching children Bible stories. These critics hold to the common linguistic ..that only humans are capable of communicating through language. During the Thirty Years' War, Royal (Habsburg) Hungary joined the Catholic side, until Transylvania joined the Protestant side. ], the majority of Slovaks (~60%) were Lutherans. The Counter-Reformation implemented by the Habsburgs severely damaged Slovakian Protestantism, although in the 2010s Protestants are still a substantial minority (~10%) in the country. The desire of many people to read the Bible in the language they spoke at home rather than in Latin. Key events of the period include: Diet of Worms (1521), formation of the Lutheran Duchy of Prussia (1525), English Reformation (1529 onwards), the Council of Trent (154563), the Peace of Augsburg (1555), the excommunication of Elizabeth I (1570), Edict of Nantes (1598) and Peace of Westphalia (1648). His "Ordinances" of 1541 involved a collaboration of Church affairs with the City council and consistory to bring morality to all areas of life. In 1566, at the peak of Belgian Reformation, there were an estimated 300,000 Protestants, or 20% of the Belgian population.[78]. The Protestant Reformation (1517-1648) refers to the widespread religious, cultural, and social upheaval of 16th-century Europe that broke the hold of the medieval Church, allowing for the development of personal interpretations of the Christian message and leading to the development of modern nation-states.It is considered one of the most important events in Western history. This period is known as the English Reformation. [citation needed]. Parallel to events in Germany, a movement began in the Swiss Confederation under the leadership of Huldrych Zwingli. Discover which Roman Catholic practices caused Martin Luther to write his. During the Reformation era Protestantism was unsuccessful in Portugal, as its spread was frustrated for similar reasons to those in Spain. In which John Green teaches you about the Protestant Reformation. Founded in 1538, the university was situated in an area of Eastern Hungary under Ottoman Turkish rule during the 1600s and 1700s, being allowed Islamic toleration and thus avoiding Counter-Reformation persecution. Depending on the country, the Reformation had varying causes and different backgrounds and also unfolded differently than in Germany. The name, though long in use among Protestanthistorians, has only recently been introduced into Catholichandbooks. [57] In 1539, the King sent a new governor to Iceland, Klaus von Mervitz, with a mandate to introduce reform and take possession of church property. Their descendants are still there, such as the Sub-Carpathian Reformed Church. For a more complete list, see the list of states by the date of adoption of the Reformation and the table of the adoption years for the Augsburg Confession. An English king had a disagreement with the pope. Fewer referendums on leisure, state intervention, and redistribution in Swiss cantons with more Protestants. Sascha O. Becker, Steven Pfaff and Jared Rubin. [53] In 1526, Frederick forbade papal investiture of bishops in Denmark and in 1527 ordered fees from new bishops be paid to the crown, making Frederick the head of the church of Denmark. Although the Thirty Years' War concluded with the Peace of Westphalia, the French Wars of the Counter-Reformation continued, as well as the expulsion of Protestants in Austria. However, the rise of the new social history in the 1960s led to looking at history from the bottom up, not from the top down. A meeting was held in his castle in 1529, now known as the Colloquy of Marburg, which has become infamous for its complete failure. Harvard Series in Ukrainian Studies, 2001. Though we might think of the Reformation in spiritual terms and view its legacy primarily as a renewed understanding of the Gospel, the work of Christ, and the role of Scripture in the life of the church, the reformers themselves had no choice but to be involved in politics. [citation needed], The strategy the Catholic Church took towards reconverting the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth differed from its strategy elsewhere. Using the German vernacular they expressed the Apostles' Creed in simpler, more personal, Trinitarian language. N. The Counter-Reformation began after Martin Luther 's Reformation. However few copies of Calvin's writings were available before mid-19th century.[68]. On the eve of the Protestant Reformation, Christianity held the predominant position within the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and Catholicism received preferential treatment at the expense of the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox. Transylvania in what is today's Romania was a "dumping ground for undesirables" by the Habsburg monarchy. Czech reformer and university professor Jan Hus (c. 13691415) became the best-known representative of the Bohemian Reformation and one of the forerunners of the Protestant Reformation. [53] During his reign, Lutheranism made significant inroads among the Danish population. It swept through the Bavarian, Thuringian and Swabian principalities, including the Black Company of Florian Geier, a knight from Giebelstadt who joined the peasants in the general outrage against the Catholic hierarchy. Fahlbusch, Erwin, and Bromiley, Geoffrey William (2003). They drove the monks out and seized all their possessions, for which they were promptly excommunicated by gmundur. Simul justus et peccator implied that although people could improve, no one could become good enough to earn forgiveness from God. World Civilization Chapter 5 - The Counter-Re, The Counter Reformation, Chapter 1, Section 7, Literature and Philosophy of the Renaissance, Eric Hinderaker, James A. Henretta, Rebecca Edwards, Robert O. Self, John Lund, Paul S. Vickery, P. Scott Corbett, Todd Pfannestiel, Volker Janssen, Nurs418: Atrioventricular Blocks and Pacemake, ACE Health and Wellness Coach Practice Test, Nursing Management of Hypertension NURS 4554. In 1620, the Battle of White Mountain defeated Protestants in Bohemia (now the Czech Republic) who sought to have the 1609 Letter of Majesty upheld. Scribd is the world's largest social reading and publishing site. The Reformation Parliament of 1560 repudiated the pope's authority by the Papal Jurisdiction Act 1560, forbade the celebration of the Mass and approved a Protestant Confession of Faith. Greater entrepreneurship among religious minorities in Protestant states. Littlejohn, Bradford, and Jonathan Roberts eds. [24] In response to reports about the destruction and violence, Luther condemned the revolt in writings such as Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants; Zwingli and Luther's ally Philipp Melanchthon also did not condone the uprising. In October another thirty were executed. Regions that were poor but had great economic potential and bad political institutions were more likely to adopt Protestantism. George Mason University's study on the fall of communism states, "Poland is, at first glance, one of the most religiously homogeneous countries on earth. The Counter-Reformation was a religious and political movement that involved the creation of new practices and policies in the Catholic Church. Lutheranism gained a significant following in the eastern half of present-day Austria, while Calvinism was less successful.